kemaksuman

kemaksuman para imam syi'ah merupakan sebuah pembodohan bagi kalangan pemikir, karna apabila dipikirkan secara menyeluruh sungguh sangat tidak mungkin ada seseorang yang betul-betul terjaga dari kesalahan, dalam hadits yang sering kita dengan nabi bersabda كل بني آدم خطاء وخير الخطائين التوابون di dalam hadits ini ada kata-kata "kullu" yang artinya semua, dan itu merupakan kata umum untuk semua maunusia, maka jelas sekali bahwa manusia pernah berbuat kesalahan kecuali orang-orang yang dikhususkan oleh Allah SWT, diantaranya para nabi dengan ayat إنما ينطق عن الهواء إن هي إلا وحي يوحي bahwa yang dikatakan nabi adalah apa yang diwahyukan oleh Allah, wallahu a'lam.......

ooooooooooh hidup betapa indahnya engkau sehingga kami terlena di dalamnya

mengirikan barang ke Kendari

hari ini sabtu 3 Oktober 2009 perjalananku ke tempat baru akan dimulai, dengan mengirimkan barang - barang keperluan pondok Modern Gontor Puntri 4 berupa : pakaian olahraga, wardun, kalender, buku TS dan beberapa barang ust. Hanif, perjalanan kami mulan jam 01.30 WIB setelah kami menjama sholat Asar dengan Dzuhur karna perjalanan ini akan memakan waktu kurang lebih 5 jam.
pada awal perjalanan kami masih asik mengobrol, menceritakan pengalaman masing - masing dan menanyakan masalah - masalah yang ada di Kendari kepada sahabat kami ust. Qoyyim yang sudah mengabdi selama 1 tahun di sana, dia mengatakan bagaimana keadaan jalan yang ada di Kendari, jalanya kecil tapi dilalui banyak mobil - mobil besar yang menyebabkan jalan cepat rusak sama persis dengan yang terjadi di Jawa, selain itu dia juga menceritakan bagaimana keadaan pondok di Waktu malam yang suka diganggu oleh hewan liar seperti Babi Hutan dan Anjing Hutan ( iiiiiiiiiiiih jadi serem) tapi selain certita - cerita yang menyedihkan dan menakutkan banyak juga cerita yang lucu dan menghebohkan, seperti ceritanya tentang sekawanan sapi yang suka melintas kawasan pondok, memeras susu sapi dengan 2 tangan dan keindahan - keindahan pondok di pagi dan sore hari yang membuat aku ingin cepat - cepat sampai di sana.
perjalananpun tak terasa sudah memasuki daerah Surabaya yang mulai ramai, sedikit demi sedikit kami dicegat kemacetan yang sudah lumrah terjadi di perkotaan, tapi dengan kelihaianya ust. Qoyyim dalam menyetir mobil dia bisa mnyalip dengan cepatnya sehingga sebelum Maghrib kami sudah samapai di Bandara Juanda tempat kami mengcagokan barang - barang.
setelah ditimbang satu persatu sampailah kepada timbangan terakhir yaitu sekarung kalender yang beratnya 53 Kg setelah dijumlahkan total keseluruhan adalah 650 Kg setelah di kurangi diskon seberat 45 Kg, kami melihat bagian kasir menulis beban tersebut di sebuah mesin ketik kemudian dia mengalikanya dengan biayaa perkilo yaitu 6000 rupiah sehingga total biaya yang harus kami bayar adalah 6.105.000,00 rupiah.
Di perjalanan pulang kami berhenti di sebuah rumah makan yang diberi nama rumah makan Melati di daerah Krian, rumah makan tersebut berdampingn dengan sebuah masjid yang artistik dengan beberapa pilar dan hiasan, kamipun sholat Isya dengan menjama takhir sholat Magrib, pada pesanan pertama ust. Sigit dan Ust. Qoyyim memesan Sotto babat sedangkan aku sendiri memesan ayam bakar kesuakananku, setelah pelayan datang ternya soto babat sudah habis akhirnya ust. Sigit memesan ayam bakar sama denganku sedangkan ust. Qoyyim memesan soto kikil, hidangan ayam bakarpun datang kami melahapnya dengan semangat karna dari siang belum makan nasi, setelah makanan kami habis pesanan ust. Qoyyim belum juga datang sampai akhirnya beliau memanggil kembali pelayan tersebut, tampa kami sangka ternyata pelayan tersebut lupua (sungguh keterlaluan, gak tahu orang lagi lapar)

kenangan setelah Muaskar S1 Gontor

Assalamua'alikum Wr Wb

Pepatah mengatakan perjalanan 1000 langkah dimulai oleh ayunan langkah pertama kita, begitulah kehidupan kita berjalan dan tampa sadar apa yang kita impikan atau tidak kita bayangkan sebelumnya telah terjadi dan menjadi bagian hidup kita, begitupun dengan acara muaskar S1, acara yang diperuntukan bagi alumni ISID yang akan diterjunkan di lapangan perjuangan baru ini telah selesai aku ikuti dan pada akhir acara kami berkemah di danau kura - kura yang ada di daerah ponorogo, dan inilah photo acara tersebut :

sadar

Manusia merupakan mahluk yang unik, keunikanya tersebut tidak bisaa lepas dari apa yang dimiliki di dalam jiwanya yaitu hati, dalam bahasa arab hati mempunyai banyak arti yang paling populer kita kenal adala qolb yang bersal dari qolaba yang artinya terbalik, atau dalam terjemahan singkat terbolak balik,,,, hal itu membuat manusia senantiasa berubah.

wajah baru

seorang manusia tidak akan pernah lepas dari permasalahan, karena permasalahan merupakan bentuk kepercayaan Allah kepadaya. tapi kadang - kadang manusia lupa untuk senantias tersenyum ketika permasalahan menghampirinya, padahal dengan wajah baru setiap permasalahan pasti akan terselesaikan.

MEMBANGUN MASYARAKAT ISLAM

Dr. KH. Abdullah Syukri Z, MA
Masyarakat Islam merupakan masyarakat yang memegang teguh kepada ajaran-ajaran dan hukum-hukum Allah SWT yang terdapat di Al-quran maupun yang dicontohkan oleh Rasullullah SAW. Masyarakat Islam merupakan cerminan dari Masyarakat Madani yaitu masyarakat kota Madinah pada zaman Rasululllah masih hidup yang dipenuhi dengan nilai-nilai dan ajaran Islam.
Pada zaman sekarang ini dengan perubahan-perubahan zaman yang begitu cepat dan sedikit-demi sedikit telah melunturkan nilai-nilai Islam baik berbentuk dalam sebuah majemuk kemasyarakatan maupun yang berbentuk Negara yang berdaulat untuk menegakan sebuah pemerintahan yang berdasarkan nilai-nilai Islam.
Dari berbagai latarbelakang tersebut berkembang permikiran yang bermacam-macam, ada permikiran untuk mendirikan dan mewujudkan Masyarakat Islam, kemudian ada juga pemikiran untuk mendrikan Negara Islam.Dengan Masyarakat Islam yang bersumber dari kehidupan masyarakat yang murni dari kesadaran dari bawah, sehingga akan mewujudkan sebuah Negara dan pemerintahan Islam.
Sedangkan konsep mendirikan Negara atau Pemerintahan Islam, sehingga ada ketentuan-ketentuan yang jelas dan mengikat para setiap anggota masyarakat sehingga akan terbentuk sebuah masyarakat Islam. Ada beberapa konsep perjuangan atau jalan yang dilakukan oleh beberapa golongan untuk menegakkan agama Allah, yaitu;
Politik
Jalur politik dipilih oleh beberapa golongan untuk mewujudkan sebuah kekuatan yang bersifat mengikat untuk dapat membentuk sebuah masyarakat yang Islami. Konsep ini dikembangkan dan dipraktekan oleh para praktisi politik yang tergabung dalam berbagai macam partai politik Islam.
Pendidikan
Pendidikan merupakan sebuah proses untuk merubah sebuah pola pikir masyarakat dan sebagai salah satu alat untuk mengadakan perubahan yang besar dari sebuah komunitas masyarakat dan Negara. Kalau jalur politik menggunakan Hard Power (kekuatan mengikat/keras) maka pendidikan merupakan jalur perjuangan Islam dengan menggunakan Soft Power (kekuatan lunak). Dengan pendidikan akan terlahir beberapa generasi-generasi yang berwawasan dan berpengetahuan luas serta berjiwa pemimpin yang bertanggung jawab. Jalur inilah yang digunakan PMDG dalam rangka membangun dan mewujudkan Masyarakt Islam.
Permikiran tersebut pada dasarnya memiliki satu tujuan yang sama, yaitu; untuk melaksanakan nilai-nilai Islam dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, baik dalam masyarakat maupun dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.
Sekulerisme
Negara-negara barat tentuk tidak setuju melihat perkembangan dan kemajuan dari pemikiran-pemikiran tersebut diatas, apabila ummat Islam berhasil menerapkan apa yang dimaksud dengan Masyarakt Islam dan Negara Islam tentu ini semua akan menjadi ancaman serius terhadap kepentingan dan keberadaan Negara-negara barat tersebut. Segala daya dan upaya dilakukan untuk menghambat bahkan menghancurkan permikiran Masyarakt Islam dan Negara Islam tersebut. Salah satu pemikiran atau serangan yagn didesain oleh barat adalam pemikiran sekularisme dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat dan berbangsa serta bernegara.
Sekulerisme merupakan paham yang lahir dari penyelewengan dan ketidak sewenang-wenagnan pihak gereja terhadap masyarakat eropa pada saati itu. Pada zaman ini eropa berada pada zaman kegelapan dimana kekuasaan dan kebijakan pemerintah dikuasai oleh pihak gereja Vatikan.
Pada akhirnya kesemena-menaan ini tidak mampu lagi ditahan oleh sebagian pengikut Kristen dan masyarakat eropa pada umumnya, yang pada akhirnya mengubah pola pemerintahan di eropa yang semula dikusasai oleh gereja dirubah kepada pemerintahan yang terpisah dari pengaruh agama. Pemisahan antara agama dan Negara inilah yang selanjutnya mewarnai pemikiran-pemikiran masyakarat di barat yang kemudian permikiran ini dikenal dengan Sekularisme. Disamping itu ada gerakan yang dinamankan dengan Islahuddini, yang dimaksud dengan Islahuddini ini adalah gerakan pembaharuan ajaran agama yaitu agama Kristen, gerakan ini terdiri dari;
Islahuddini dari dalam (Katholik)
Islahuddini dari luar (Protestan)
Permikiran Sekuler inilah yang menjadikan padangan barat terhadap Al-Quran yang merupakan kitab suci umat Islam yang mengatur segala tata kehidupan umatnya sama seperti mereka memandan Injil yang digunakan para pastur yang berkuasa di gereja-gereja pada masa kegelapan di eropa.
Sebuah rahasia umum bahwa injil yang beredar sekarang merupakan injil revisi yang telah direvisi berulang-ulang kali disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan zaman dan kepentingan pemerintahan yang berkuasa pada saat tertentu. Hal ini mendorong beberapa ilmuwan untuk mencari Injil yang diharapakan masih orisinal dan mengetahui isinya. Menurut salah satu ilmuwan atau sejarahwan yang juga seorang penulis mengatakan bahwa sanya Injil yang beredar sekarang sudah tidak asli lagi (bohong). Davinci dalam bukunya tersebut mengatakan bahwasanya di Injil telah banyak penyimpangan penafsiran yang salah.
Pemikiran sekuler ini terus akan menghancurkan agama, baik Kristen yang telah dilumpuhkan pada abad pertengahan maupun Islam, kedua-duanya tidak luput dari sasaran sekularisme. Awalnya sekulerisme bertujuan untuk memisahkan antara Negara dan Agama, akan tetapi tujuan akhirnya adalah menghilangkan pengaruh agama dalam kehidupan manusia.
Islam sebagai agama dengan penganut mayoritas dari penduduk bumi terus menghadapi serangan dari kaum sekularisme. Mereka dengan dalih pembaharuan dan pemikiran yang baru dalam memandang seluruh ajaran Islam mereka mengkritisi Al-Quran, Hadits, dan jihad yang merupakan pedoman ajaran Islam. Jihad tidak dapat dirubah maknanya, jihad merupakan pengorbanan seorang hamba kepada Tuhannya baik dengan harta, nyawa, waktu dan lain sebagainya. Akan tetapi memang perlu dikondisikan cara dan metode berjihad sesuai dengan keadaan dan kondisi tertentu, dan inilah yang harus dibenarkan caranya.
Mengawal Islam
Kader-kader Islam bagaimana akan mengawal Islam dengan banyaknya halangan dan rintangan serta serangan dari pihak yang sengaja ingin memecah belah kekuatan Islam dan umat Islam. Serangan tersebut tidak hanya datang dari luar umat Islam akan tetapi dewasa ini serangan itu lebih banyak dan lebih sulit jida bersumber dari dalam umat Islam sendiri, dengan berbagai propaganda yang didesain musuh-musuh Islam. Diantara serangan atau propaganda yang bersumber dari dalam adalah munculnya aliran-aliran dan golongan serta paham-paham yang menyeleweng dari akidah umat Islam yang sebenarnya, diantaranya;
Ahmadiyyah yang dimotori oleh Inggris
Islam Liberal yang dibiayai oleh barat
dll
Menyerang sekolah-sekolah Islam, IAIN dan Pesantren
Salah satu target yang akan dicapai adalah menyerang para generasi muda yang potensial yang sedang dalam masa kritis untuk mengkritisi ajaran agamanya, sehingga nilai-niali Islam akan hilang secara bertahap dari generasi ke generasi. Gerakan itu bertujuan untuk mendreksikan Islam dengan dana yang melimpah dari barat.
Umat Islam seharusnya sadar bahwa kita umat Islam sedang dalam peperangan yang besar bukan peperangan fisik dengan menggunakan persenjataan yang canggih, akan tetapi peperangan yang lebih besar yaitu peperangan aqidah dan pemikiran. Dalam perang ini mereka yaitu pihak barat berusaha keras agar pemikirian atau aqidah Islam yang murni tidak lagi dianut atau dijadikan landasan bagi umatnya. Untuk menghadapi peperangan ini umat Islam wajib mempersiapkan diri dengan berbagai senjata dan usaha yaitu dengan belajar dan mendalami dengan baik sumber-sumber kekayaan ajaran Islam yang bersumber dari Al-quran dan Hadits, dengan berbagai macam cara diantaranya:
Membaca buku
Membaca diri kita
Mem
MEMBANGUN MASYARAKAT ISLAM
Dr. KH. Abdullah Syukri Z, MA
Masyarakat Islam merupakan masyarakat yang memegang teguh kepada ajaran-ajaran dan hukum-hukum Allah SWT yang terdapat di Al-quran maupun yang dicontohkan oleh Rasullullah SAW. Masyarakat Islam merupakan cerminan dari Masyarakat Madani yaitu masyarakat kota Madinah pada zaman Rasululllah masih hidup yang dipenuhi dengan nilai-nilai dan ajaran Islam.
Pada zaman sekarang ini dengan perubahan-perubahan zaman yang begitu cepat dan sedikit-demi sedikit telah melunturkan nilai-nilai Islam baik berbentuk dalam sebuah majemuk kemasyarakatan maupun yang berbentuk Negara yang berdaulat untuk menegakan sebuah pemerintahan yang berdasarkan nilai-nilai Islam.
Dari berbagai latarbelakang tersebut berkembang permikiran yang bermacam-macam, ada permikiran untuk mendirikan dan mewujudkan Masyarakat Islam, kemudian ada juga pemikiran untuk mendrikan Negara Islam.Dengan Masyarakat Islam yang bersumber dari kehidupan masyarakat yang murni dari kesadaran dari bawah, sehingga akan mewujudkan sebuah Negara dan pemerintahan Islam.
Sedangkan konsep mendirikan Negara atau Pemerintahan Islam, sehingga ada ketentuan-ketentuan yang jelas dan mengikat para setiap anggota masyarakat sehingga akan terbentuk sebuah masyarakat Islam. Ada beberapa konsep perjuangan atau jalan yang dilakukan oleh beberapa golongan untuk menegakkan agama Allah, yaitu;
Politik
Jalur politik dipilih oleh beberapa golongan untuk mewujudkan sebuah kekuatan yang bersifat mengikat untuk dapat membentuk sebuah masyarakat yang Islami. Konsep ini dikembangkan dan dipraktekan oleh para praktisi politik yang tergabung dalam berbagai macam partai politik Islam.
Pendidikan
Pendidikan merupakan sebuah proses untuk merubah sebuah pola pikir masyarakat dan sebagai salah satu alat untuk mengadakan perubahan yang besar dari sebuah komunitas masyarakat dan Negara. Kalau jalur politik menggunakan Hard Power (kekuatan mengikat/keras) maka pendidikan merupakan jalur perjuangan Islam dengan menggunakan Soft Power (kekuatan lunak). Dengan pendidikan akan terlahir beberapa generasi-generasi yang berwawasan dan berpengetahuan luas serta berjiwa pemimpin yang bertanggung jawab. Jalur inilah yang digunakan PMDG dalam rangka membangun dan mewujudkan Masyarakt Islam.
Permikiran tersebut pada dasarnya memiliki satu tujuan yang sama, yaitu; untuk melaksanakan nilai-nilai Islam dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, baik dalam masyarakat maupun dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.
Sekulerisme
Negara-negara barat tentuk tidak setuju melihat perkembangan dan kemajuan dari pemikiran-pemikiran tersebut diatas, apabila ummat Islam berhasil menerapkan apa yang dimaksud dengan Masyarakt Islam dan Negara Islam tentu ini semua akan menjadi ancaman serius terhadap kepentingan dan keberadaan Negara-negara barat tersebut. Segala daya dan upaya dilakukan untuk menghambat bahkan menghancurkan permikiran Masyarakt Islam dan Negara Islam tersebut. Salah satu pemikiran atau serangan yagn didesain oleh barat adalam pemikiran sekularisme dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat dan berbangsa serta bernegara.
Sekulerisme merupakan paham yang lahir dari penyelewengan dan ketidak sewenang-wenagnan pihak gereja terhadap masyarakat eropa pada saati itu. Pada zaman ini eropa berada pada zaman kegelapan dimana kekuasaan dan kebijakan pemerintah dikuasai oleh pihak gereja Vatikan.
Pada akhirnya kesemena-menaan ini tidak mampu lagi ditahan oleh sebagian pengikut Kristen dan masyarakat eropa pada umumnya, yang pada akhirnya mengubah pola pemerintahan di eropa yang semula dikusasai oleh gereja dirubah kepada pemerintahan yang terpisah dari pengaruh agama. Pemisahan antara agama dan Negara inilah yang selanjutnya mewarnai pemikiran-pemikiran masyakarat di barat yang kemudian permikiran ini dikenal dengan Sekularisme. Disamping itu ada gerakan yang dinamankan dengan Islahuddini, yang dimaksud dengan Islahuddini ini adalah gerakan pembaharuan ajaran agama yaitu agama Kristen, gerakan ini terdiri dari;
Islahuddini dari dalam (Katholik)
Islahuddini dari luar (Protestan)
Permikiran Sekuler inilah yang menjadikan padangan barat terhadap Al-Quran yang merupakan kitab suci umat Islam yang mengatur segala tata kehidupan umatnya sama seperti mereka memandan Injil yang digunakan para pastur yang berkuasa di gereja-gereja pada masa kegelapan di eropa.
Sebuah rahasia umum bahwa injil yang beredar sekarang merupakan injil revisi yang telah direvisi berulang-ulang kali disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan zaman dan kepentingan pemerintahan yang berkuasa pada saat tertentu. Hal ini mendorong beberapa ilmuwan untuk mencari Injil yang diharapakan masih orisinal dan mengetahui isinya. Menurut salah satu ilmuwan atau sejarahwan yang juga seorang penulis mengatakan bahwa sanya Injil yang beredar sekarang sudah tidak asli lagi (bohong). Davinci dalam bukunya tersebut mengatakan bahwasanya di Injil telah banyak penyimpangan penafsiran yang salah.
Pemikiran sekuler ini terus akan menghancurkan agama, baik Kristen yang telah dilumpuhkan pada abad pertengahan maupun Islam, kedua-duanya tidak luput dari sasaran sekularisme. Awalnya sekulerisme bertujuan untuk memisahkan antara Negara dan Agama, akan tetapi tujuan akhirnya adalah menghilangkan pengaruh agama dalam kehidupan manusia.
Islam sebagai agama dengan penganut mayoritas dari penduduk bumi terus menghadapi serangan dari kaum sekularisme. Mereka dengan dalih pembaharuan dan pemikiran yang baru dalam memandang seluruh ajaran Islam mereka mengkritisi Al-Quran, Hadits, dan jihad yang merupakan pedoman ajaran Islam. Jihad tidak dapat dirubah maknanya, jihad merupakan pengorbanan seorang hamba kepada Tuhannya baik dengan harta, nyawa, waktu dan lain sebagainya. Akan tetapi memang perlu dikondisikan cara dan metode berjihad sesuai dengan keadaan dan kondisi tertentu, dan inilah yang harus dibenarkan caranya.
Mengawal Islam
Kader-kader Islam bagaimana akan mengawal Islam dengan banyaknya halangan dan rintangan serta serangan dari pihak yang sengaja ingin memecah belah kekuatan Islam dan umat Islam. Serangan tersebut tidak hanya datang dari luar umat Islam akan tetapi dewasa ini serangan itu lebih banyak dan lebih sulit jida bersumber dari dalam umat Islam sendiri, dengan berbagai propaganda yang didesain musuh-musuh Islam. Diantara serangan atau propaganda yang bersumber dari dalam adalah munculnya aliran-aliran dan golongan serta paham-paham yang menyeleweng dari akidah umat Islam yang sebenarnya, diantaranya;
Ahmadiyyah yang dimotori oleh Inggris
Islam Liberal yang dibiayai oleh barat
dll
Menyerang sekolah-sekolah Islam, IAIN dan Pesantren
Salah satu target yang akan dicapai adalah menyerang para generasi muda yang potensial yang sedang dalam masa kritis untuk mengkritisi ajaran agamanya, sehingga nilai-niali Islam akan hilang secara bertahap dari generasi ke generasi. Gerakan itu bertujuan untuk mendreksikan Islam dengan dana yang melimpah dari barat.
Umat Islam seharusnya sadar bahwa kita umat Islam sedang dalam peperangan yang besar bukan peperangan fisik dengan menggunakan persenjataan yang canggih, akan tetapi peperangan yang lebih besar yaitu peperangan aqidah dan pemikiran. Dalam perang ini mereka yaitu pihak barat berusaha keras agar pemikirian atau aqidah Islam yang murni tidak lagi dianut atau dijadikan landasan bagi umatnya. Untuk menghadapi peperangan ini umat Islam wajib mempersiapkan diri dengan berbagai senjata dan usaha yaitu dengan belajar dan mendalami dengan baik sumber-sumber kekayaan ajaran Islam yang bersumber dari Al-quran dan Hadits, dengan berbagai macam cara diantaranya:
Membaca buku
Membaca diri kita
Membaca alam
Membaca manusia
Mengevaluasi diri kita (muhasabah)
Memohon ampunan kepada Allah dari segala dosa kita
Yang kita ketahui
Yang tidak kita ketahui
Yang belum kita lakukan
Yang telah kita lakukan
Disampaikan dalam Taushiyah di Masjid Pusaka
Senin, 12 Desember 2005
Pukul 18.20
baca alam
Membaca manusia
Mengevaluasi diri kita (muhasabah)
Memohon ampunan kepada Allah dari segala dosa kita
Yang kita ketahui
Yang tidak kita ketahui
Yang belum kita lakukan
Yang telah kita lakukan
Disampaikan dalam Taushiyah di Masjid Pusaka
Senin, 12 Desember 2005
Pukul 18.20

Ciri-Ciri Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor

Dr. KH. Abdullah Syukri Zarkasyi, MA
Pusaka, Selasa 22 November 2005
Gontor merupakan sebuah lembaga pendidikan yang tertata sedemikian rupa, sehingga terbentuklah kehidupan yang demikian rupa, karena gontor mempunyai cirri-ciri khusus. Seseorang yang mempunyai anak dua dengan seseorang yang mempunyai anak sebelas mempunyai tata kehidupan yang berbeda. Anak seorang dosen dan anak seorang saudagar akan berbeda tata kehidupannya. Pondok pesantren salaf dengan pondok pesantren modern berbeda juga tata kehidupannya. Karena itu Gontor mempunyai beberapa cirri-ciri sebagai berikut:
1. Diwakafkan
Pondok ini diwakafkan pada tahun 1957 dan tangan saya ikut menandatangani piagam penyerahan wakaf tersebut, sampai saat ini ada dua orang yang masih hidup yang ikut menandatangani piagam wakaf tersebut, saya dan satu lagi adalah Amsil Bahtiar yang sekarang tinggal di Sumatra. Karena pondok ini diwakafkan maka keluarga dari pendiri pondok ini tidak boleh dan tidak berhak atas materiil pondok secara keseluruhan, dan tidak berhak menguasai yang lain, maka hal tersebut diatur oleh Badan Wakaf. Maka di pondok salaf beberapa unit usaha dikuasai atau dimiki oleh para keluarga kiayi, yayasannya, wartelnya, tokonya maka yang akan terjadi rebutan fasilitas dan akhirnya akan hancur. Maka Gontor tidak begitu, mengapa diwakafkan karena para pendiri pondok ini akan ada dari keluarga pak Sahal, dari keluarga pak Zarkasyi, dari keluarga pak Fananie akan memperebutkan fasilitas pondok ini sepeninggalan para pendirinya, maka keberadaan Badan Wakaf adalah sebagai penengah ini semua. Semua keluarga mendapatkan kedudukan yang sama dan tidak ada perbedaan, seperti anak pak Sahal, anak pak Zar, dan anak-anak yang lain akan mendapatkan perlakuan yang sama. Bahkan kita di Gontor tidak melihat kalian lulusan S1, S2, S3 ataupun professor sekalipun yang dilihat apa yang kalian bisa berikan untuk pondok. Nah inilah yang merupakan implementasi dari perwakafan yang merembet keseluruh sector kehidupan pondok.
2. Membedakan antara hak pribadi dan hak pondok
Di Gontor dibedakan antara hak pribadi dan hak pondok, hak pimpinan dan hak pondok, hak keluarga dan hak pondok semua itu dibedakan dan tidak boleh dicampuri. Rumah Pimpinan listriknya, biaya telefonnya merupakan kewajiban pribadi pimpinan yang harus dibayar oleh pimpinan secara pribadi bukan dari uang pondok. Perbedaan dari rumah keluarga pak Sahal dan rumah keluarga pak Zarkasyi dalam masalah lampunya, listriknya, megahnya, itu merupakan tanggung jawab dari keluarga masing-masing dan pondok tidak ikut campur dalam masalah itu.
Perkawinan adalah urusan pribadi bukan urusan pondok, paling pondok hanya membantu sedikit tidak secara keseluruhan, seperti airminumnya, berasnya, dan lain sebagainya.
3. Pondok Kaderiassi
Dari awal pondok ini mengajakarkan kepemimpinan, dari kamar, ayon, kelas, klub olahraga, mereka semenjak dini dilatih sebagai pemimpin mulai dari yang kecil sampai tingkat yang lebih tinggi lagi. Karena diatur, ditata sedemikian rupa maka inilah sebuah lembaga kaderisasi pemimpin dengan proses pimpin memimpin itu. Proses pimpin memimpin itulah yang membuat kita asyik dan menikmatinya. Panggung Gembira dan Drama Arena tanpa organisasi yang baik tidak akan menampilakan acara yang sedemikian rupa bagusnya, mulai dari mencari dana sebanyak itu, mengerahkan tenaga yang sedemikian itu, dengan koordinasi yang akurat, dengan apresiasi seni yang sedemikian rupa merupakan sebuah pagelaran yang sangat dashyat sekali apalagi kalau tidak hujan. Maka dari itu di Gontor banyak sekali kita adakan gerakan-gerakan kepemimpinan, mulai dari organisasi pelajar, kepramukaan dengan kemahnya semuanya itu ada proses kepemimpinan. Kepanitiaan Perkemahan memikirkan dananya, mencari tempat, persiapannya dan lain-lain, yang seperti ini jarang sekali ada diluar dan sampai mengeluarkan kemampuan puncak sampai lebih dari 60%.
4. Pondok ini terbuka (Open Management)
Karena pondok ini adalah pondok kaderisasi maka pondok ini harus terbuka, kalian adalah kader yang akan terjun ke masyarakat maka kalian harus menguasai seluruh permasalahan yang ada di pondok ini. Karena pendidikan adalah pemberian pengarahan-pengarahan kepada para kader-kader ummat. Dengan semua ini kamu dapat memahami pondok secara maknawiyan, lafdziyan, ruhiyan, aqliyan dan kamu dapat menyerap segala apa yang ada di pondok ini dalam hati kalian untuk selanjutkan kamu kembangkan dimasyarakat nanti. Maka kalau pengarahan dan sentuhan-sentuhan pondok yang sedemikian rupa menyentuh hati kalian maka kalian kalau pulang dari Gontor akan lebih memahami Gontor. Banyak orang atau alumni yang lebih memahami Gontor setelah ia pulang dari Gontor ini, maka adiknya dibawa kemari, anaknya, adik istrinya di sekolahkan ke Gontor. Maka karena asyiknya merasakan kehidupan di Gontor maka ia menganjurkan keluarganya untuk sekolah ke Gontor, maka siar Gontor bukan dari televisi, majalah dan dari media massa lainnya akan tetapi para calon santri lebih banyak mengenal Gontor dari keluarganya yang sekolah di Gontor. Dengan itu semua para calon santri mendaftarkan untuk sekolah ke Gontor ribuan, pada tahun ini hampir 3000 calon santri tiap tahunnya.
Dari keterbukaan ini banyak orang mempelajari Gontor, dan akhirnya memahami Gontor walaupun tidak secara keseluruhan. Maka pimpinan pondok dengan berbagai macam cara harus menyampaikan visi, misi, nilai dan sistem pondok pesantren kepada guru, santri, wali santri, keluarga, masyarakat, tokoh masyarakat, alumni, pemerintah.
5. Mementingkan Pendidikan dari pada Pengajaran
Pendidikan dari berbagai kegiatan yang mendidik di kelas, kamar, asrama, organisasi, ketika kelas 6 yang sedemikian rupa maka terjadilah Ukhuwah Islamiyah. Kegiatan-kegiatan inilah yang mendidik seorang pribadi santri.
6. Metode Pengajaran Modern
Kita tidak mengajarkan kepada para santri dengan metode terjemahan, utawi. Dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab kita mengajarkan mereka untuk membaca dengan baik, menulis dengan baik, memahami dengan baik sehingga mereka dapat memahami pelajarannya yang mayoritas berbahasa Arab.
7. Pondok ini adalah Pondok Modern
Karena pondok ini adalah pondok modern banyak kegiatan-kegiatan pondok ini yang harus sistimatik, efektif, efisien, progesif, homogenizing menuju kedepan tidak hanya mengikuti apa yang telah dilakukan para pendahulu kita tanpa adanya pembaharuan dan perbaikan yang disesuaikan dengan zaman. Maka pondok ini akan berkembang, dan tahun ini aja belum selesai lima tahun kedepan pondok ini tentu akan berkembang, belum tentu sama seperti sekarang, kegiatannya, disiplinya, dan aturannya.

Ciri-Ciri Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor
Dr. KH. Abdullah Syukri Zarkasyi, MA
Pusaka, Selasa 22 November 2005
Gontor merupakan sebuah lembaga pendidikan yang tertata sedemikian rupa, sehingga terbentuklah kehidupan yang demikian rupa, karena gontor mempunyai cirri-ciri khusus. Seseorang yang mempunyai anak dua dengan seseorang yang mempunyai anak sebelas mempunyai tata kehidupan yang berbeda. Anak seorang dosen dan anak seorang saudagar akan berbeda tata kehidupannya. Pondok pesantren salaf dengan pondok pesantren modern berbeda juga tata kehidupannya. Karena itu Gontor mempunyai beberapa cirri-ciri sebagai berikut:
1. Diwakafkan
Pondok ini diwakafkan pada tahun 1957 dan tangan saya ikut menandatangani piagam penyerahan wakaf tersebut, sampai saat ini ada dua orang yang masih hidup yang ikut menandatangani piagam wakaf tersebut, saya dan satu lagi adalah Amsil Bahtiar yang sekarang tinggal di Sumatra. Karena pondok ini diwakafkan maka keluarga dari pendiri pondok ini tidak boleh dan tidak berhak atas materiil pondok secara keseluruhan, dan tidak berhak menguasai yang lain, maka hal tersebut diatur oleh Badan Wakaf. Maka di pondok salaf beberapa unit usaha dikuasai atau dimiki oleh para keluarga kiayi, yayasannya, wartelnya, tokonya maka yang akan terjadi rebutan fasilitas dan akhirnya akan hancur. Maka Gontor tidak begitu, mengapa diwakafkan karena para pendiri pondok ini akan ada dari keluarga pak Sahal, dari keluarga pak Zarkasyi, dari keluarga pak Fananie akan memperebutkan fasilitas pondok ini sepeninggalan para pendirinya, maka keberadaan Badan Wakaf adalah sebagai penengah ini semua. Semua keluarga mendapatkan kedudukan yang sama dan tidak ada perbedaan, seperti anak pak Sahal, anak pak Zar, dan anak-anak yang lain akan mendapatkan perlakuan yang sama. Bahkan kita di Gontor tidak melihat kalian lulusan S1, S2, S3 ataupun professor sekalipun yang dilihat apa yang kalian bisa berikan untuk pondok. Nah inilah yang merupakan implementasi dari perwakafan yang merembet keseluruh sector kehidupan pondok.
2. Membedakan antara hak pribadi dan hak pondok
Di Gontor dibedakan antara hak pribadi dan hak pondok, hak pimpinan dan hak pondok, hak keluarga dan hak pondok semua itu dibedakan dan tidak boleh dicampuri. Rumah Pimpinan listriknya, biaya telefonnya merupakan kewajiban pribadi pimpinan yang harus dibayar oleh pimpinan secara pribadi bukan dari uang pondok. Perbedaan dari rumah keluarga pak Sahal dan rumah keluarga pak Zarkasyi dalam masalah lampunya, listriknya, megahnya, itu merupakan tanggung jawab dari keluarga masing-masing dan pondok tidak ikut campur dalam masalah itu.
Perkawinan adalah urusan pribadi bukan urusan pondok, paling pondok hanya membantu sedikit tidak secara keseluruhan, seperti airminumnya, berasnya, dan lain sebagainya.
3. Pondok Kaderiassi
Dari awal pondok ini mengajakarkan kepemimpinan, dari kamar, ayon, kelas, klub olahraga, mereka semenjak dini dilatih sebagai pemimpin mulai dari yang kecil sampai tingkat yang lebih tinggi lagi. Karena diatur, ditata sedemikian rupa maka inilah sebuah lembaga kaderisasi pemimpin dengan proses pimpin memimpin itu. Proses pimpin memimpin itulah yang membuat kita asyik dan menikmatinya. Panggung Gembira dan Drama Arena tanpa organisasi yang baik tidak akan menampilakan acara yang sedemikian rupa bagusnya, mulai dari mencari dana sebanyak itu, mengerahkan tenaga yang sedemikian itu, dengan koordinasi yang akurat, dengan apresiasi seni yang sedemikian rupa merupakan sebuah pagelaran yang sangat dashyat sekali apalagi kalau tidak hujan. Maka dari itu di Gontor banyak sekali kita adakan gerakan-gerakan kepemimpinan, mulai dari organisasi pelajar, kepramukaan dengan kemahnya semuanya itu ada proses kepemimpinan. Kepanitiaan Perkemahan memikirkan dananya, mencari tempat, persiapannya dan lain-lain, yang seperti ini jarang sekali ada diluar dan sampai mengeluarkan kemampuan puncak sampai lebih dari 60%.
4. Pondok ini terbuka (Open Management)
Karena pondok ini adalah pondok kaderisasi maka pondok ini harus terbuka, kalian adalah kader yang akan terjun ke masyarakat maka kalian harus menguasai seluruh permasalahan yang ada di pondok ini. Karena pendidikan adalah pemberian pengarahan-pengarahan kepada para kader-kader ummat. Dengan semua ini kamu dapat memahami pondok secara maknawiyan, lafdziyan, ruhiyan, aqliyan dan kamu dapat menyerap segala apa yang ada di pondok ini dalam hati kalian untuk selanjutkan kamu kembangkan dimasyarakat nanti. Maka kalau pengarahan dan sentuhan-sentuhan pondok yang sedemikian rupa menyentuh hati kalian maka kalian kalau pulang dari Gontor akan lebih memahami Gontor. Banyak orang atau alumni yang lebih memahami Gontor setelah ia pulang dari Gontor ini, maka adiknya dibawa kemari, anaknya, adik istrinya di sekolahkan ke Gontor. Maka karena asyiknya merasakan kehidupan di Gontor maka ia menganjurkan keluarganya untuk sekolah ke Gontor, maka siar Gontor bukan dari televisi, majalah dan dari media massa lainnya akan tetapi para calon santri lebih banyak mengenal Gontor dari keluarganya yang sekolah di Gontor. Dengan itu semua para calon santri mendaftarkan untuk sekolah ke Gontor ribuan, pada tahun ini hampir 3000 calon santri tiap tahunnya.
Dari keterbukaan ini banyak orang mempelajari Gontor, dan akhirnya memahami Gontor walaupun tidak secara keseluruhan. Maka pimpinan pondok dengan berbagai macam cara harus menyampaikan visi, misi, nilai dan sistem pondok pesantren kepada guru, santri, wali santri, keluarga, masyarakat, tokoh masyarakat, alumni, pemerintah.
5. Mementingkan Pendidikan dari pada Pengajaran
Pendidikan dari berbagai kegiatan yang mendidik di kelas, kamar, asrama, organisasi, ketika kelas 6 yang sedemikian rupa maka terjadilah Ukhuwah Islamiyah. Kegiatan-kegiatan inilah yang mendidik seorang pribadi santri.
6. Metode Pengajaran Modern
Kita tidak mengajarkan kepada para santri dengan metode terjemahan, utawi. Dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab kita mengajarkan mereka untuk membaca dengan baik, menulis dengan baik, memahami dengan baik sehingga mereka dapat memahami pelajarannya yang mayoritas berbahasa Arab.
7. Pondok ini adalah Pondok Modern
Karena pondok ini adalah pondok modern banyak kegiatan-kegiatan pondok ini yang harus sistimatik, efektif, efisien, progesif, homogenizing menuju kedepan tidak hanya mengikuti apa yang telah dilakukan para pendahulu kita tanpa adanya pembaharuan dan perbaikan yang disesuaikan dengan zaman. Maka pondok ini akan berkembang, dan tahun ini aja belum selesai lima tahun kedepan pondok ini tentu akan berkembang, belum tentu sama seperti sekarang, kegiatannya, disiplinya, dan aturannya.

Are you serving?

"You may be good, but what are you good for? You’ve got to be good for something. You’ve got to be about some project, some task that requires you to be humble and obedient to the universal principles of service." -- Stephen R. Covey "We had to learn ourselves, and furthermore we had to teach the despairing men, that it did not matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us. We needed to stop asking about the meaning of life but instead to think of ourselves as those who were being questioned by life, daily and hourly. Our answer must consist not in talk and medication, but in right action and in right conduct. Life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfill the tasks which it constantly sets for the individual." -- Victor Frankl "If you think you're too small to have an impact, try going to bed with a mosquito in the room." -- Anita Roddick
Labels: today's quotes

Motivation

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Look up Motivation inWiktionary, the free dictionary.
Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior, especially human behavior as studied in philosophy, conflict, economics, psychology, and neuropsychology. These reasons may include basic needs such as food or a desired object, hobbies, goal, state of being, or ideal. The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality. According to Geen,[1] motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior.
Contents[hide]
1 Motivational concepts
1.1 The Incentive Theory of Motivation
1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
1.3 Self-control
2 Motivational Theories
2.1 Drive Reduction Theories
2.1.1 Cognitive dissonance theory
2.2 Affective-Arousal Theories
2.2.1 Need Achievement Theory
2.2.2 Interests Theory
2.3 Need Theories
2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory
2.3.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory
2.3.3 Alderfer’s ERG theory
2.3.4 Self-determination theory
2.3.5 Broad Theories
2.4 Cognitive theories
2.4.1 Goal-setting theory
2.5 Unconscious motivation
3 Controlling motivation
3.1 Early programming
3.2 Organization
3.3 Drugs
4 Applications
4.1 Education
4.2 Business
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
//

[edit] Motivational concepts

[edit] The Incentive Theory of Motivation
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.
Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.

[edit] Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives.
Intrinsic motivation has been studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. There is currently no universal theory to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation, and most explanations combine elements of Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Though it is thought that students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in),
Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),
Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.
Note that the idea of reward for achievement is absent from this model of intrinsic motivation, since rewards are an extrinsic factor.
In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.
The most obvious form of motivation is coercion, where the avoidance of pain or other negative consequences has an immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is considered slavery. While coercion is considered morally reprehensible in many philosophies, it is widely practiced on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family unit (on children), and in the form of conscription. Critics of modern capitalism charge that without social safety networks, wage slavery is inevitable[citation needed]. However, many capitalists such as Ayn Rand have been very vocal against coercion[citation needed]. Successful coercion sometimes can take priority over other types of motivation. Self-coercion is rarely substantially negative (typically only negative in the sense that it avoids a positive, such as forgoing an expensive dinner or a period of relaxation), however it is interesting in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be sometimes tweaked to satisfy higher ones.
In terms of GCSE PE, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. E.g. they compete for the love of the sport.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. E.g. The crowd cheer the performer on, this motivates them to do well, or to beat a PB (Personal Best). Another example is trophies or a reward. It makes the performer want to win and beat the other competitors, thereby motivating the performer.

[edit] Self-control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School of Management professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal.
Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.

[edit] Motivational Theories

[edit] Drive Reduction Theories
There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases as it is not satisfied. Then as we satisfy that drive by fulfilling its desire, such as eating, the drive's strength is reduced. It is based on the theories of Freud and the idea of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.
There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of the Drive Reduction Theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how Secondary Reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological or psychological need but reduces drive on a regular basis through a pay check second-order conditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory held true we would not be able to explain how a hungry human being can prepare a meal without eating the food before they finished cooking it.
However, when comparing this to a real life situation such as preparing food, one does get hungrier as the food is being made (drive increases), and after the food has been consumed the drive decreases. The only reason the food does not get eaten before is the human element of restraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, the food will either be nicer after it is cooked, or it won't be edible at all before it is cooked.

[edit] Cognitive dissonance theory
Main article: Cognitive dissonance
Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.
Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for one's health, and yet continues to smoke.

[edit] Affective-Arousal Theories

[edit] Need Achievement Theory
Main article: David McClelland
David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory envisions that a person has a need for three things, but differs in degrees to which the various needs influence their behavior: Need for achievement, Need for power, and Need for affiliation.

[edit] Interests Theory
Main article: Holland Codes
Holland Codes are used in the assessment of interests as in Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985). One way to look at interests is that if a person has a strong interest in one of the 6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be strongly reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of weak interest.

[edit] Need Theories

[edit] Need Hierarchy Theory
Main article: Hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely discussed theory of motivation.
The theory can be summarized as thus:
Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior; only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are as follows:
Physiological
Safety and security
Social
Esteem
Self actualization

[edit] Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Main article: Frederick Herzberg
Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, lead to dissatisfaction.
He distinguished between:
Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
Hygiene factors; (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.
The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory."

[edit] Alderfer’s ERG theory
Main article: Clayton Alderfer
Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

[edit] Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and development. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.[2]

[edit] Broad Theories
The latest approach in Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective as lined out in the "Onion-Ring-Model of Achievement Motivation" by Heinz Schuler, George C. Thornton III, Andreas Frintrup and Rose Mueller-Hanson. It is based on the premise that performance motivation results from way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. Especially it integrates formerly separated approaches as Need for Achievement with e.g. social motives like Dominance. The Achievement Motivation Inventory AMI (Schuler, Thornton, Frintrup & Mueller-Hanson, 2003) is based on this theory and assesses three factors (17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.for example...

[edit] Cognitive theories

[edit] Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal. For further reading, see Locke and Latham (2002).
Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.

[edit] Unconscious motivation
Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to Maslow: "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct [3]." In other words, stated motives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example, it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not really hungry for food but for attention and love. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment than others because they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.
Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it are not available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or repressed. Rationalization, or "explaining away", is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one's own faults to others. "I feel I am to blame", becomes "It is her fault; she is selfish". Repression of powerful but socially unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An example of this would be the employee who hates his boss but overworks himself on the job to show that he holds him in high regard.
Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the extent that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other hand, knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems. Although few contemporary psychologists deny the existence of unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated only in times of anxiety and stress, and that in the ordinary course of events, human behavior — from the subject's point of view — is rationally purposeful.

[edit] Controlling motivation
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.

[edit] Early programming
Modern imaging has provided solid empirical support for the psychological theory that emotional programming is largely defined in childhood. Harold Chugani, Medical Director of the PET Clinic at the Children's Hospital of Michigan and professor of pediatrics, neurology and radiology at Wayne State University School of Medicine, has found that children's brains are much more capable of consuming new information (linked to emotions) than those of adults. Brain activity in cortical regions is about twice as high in children as in adults from the third to the ninth year of life. After that period, it declines constantly to the low levels of adulthood. Brain volume, on the other hand, is already at about 95% of adult levels in the ninth year of life.

[edit] Organization
Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life, there are solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self-motivation. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one chapter about the proper organization of one's tasks and goals. It is usually suggested that it is critical to maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between those which are completed and those which are not, thereby moving some of the required motivation for their completion from the tasks themselves into a "meta-task", namely the processing of the tasks in the task list, which can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.
Most electronic to-do lists have this basic functionality, although the distinction between completed and non-completed tasks is not always clear (completed tasks are sometimes simply deleted, instead of kept in a separate list).
Other forms of information organization may also be motivational, such as the use of mind maps to organize one's ideas, and thereby "train" the neural network that is the human brain to focus on the given task. Simpler forms of idea notation such as simple bullet-point style lists may also be sufficient, or even more useful to less visually oriented persons..

[edit] Drugs
Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as nootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.
Converging neurobiological evidence also supports the idea that addictive drugs such as cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, and heroin act on brain systems underlying motivation for natural rewards, such as the mesolimbic dopamine system. Normally, these brain systems serve to guide us toward fitness-enhancing rewards (food, water, sex, etc.), but they can be co-opted by repeated use of drugs of abuse, causing addicts to excessively pursue drug rewards. Therefore, drugs can hijack brain systems underlying other motivations, causing the almost singular pursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.

[edit] Applications

[edit] Education

This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007)
Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can:
Direct behavior toward particular goals
Lead to increased effort and energy
Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
Enhance cognitive processing
Determine what consequences are reinforcing
Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
There are two kinds of motivation:
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant.
Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).
Note also that there is already questioning and expansion about this dichotomy on motivation, e.g., Self-Determination Theory.
Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.
Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner).

[edit] Business
At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.
Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
Motivated workers are more productive.
The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side.
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study[4] at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).
Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's Goal Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.[5]
According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence scientific management bases human motivatiMotivation
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Look up Motivation inWiktionary, the free dictionary.
Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior, especially human behavior as studied in philosophy, conflict, economics, psychology, and neuropsychology. These reasons may include basic needs such as food or a desired object, hobbies, goal, state of being, or ideal. The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality. According to Geen,[1] motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior.
Contents[hide]
1 Motivational concepts
1.1 The Incentive Theory of Motivation
1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
1.3 Self-control
2 Motivational Theories
2.1 Drive Reduction Theories
2.1.1 Cognitive dissonance theory
2.2 Affective-Arousal Theories
2.2.1 Need Achievement Theory
2.2.2 Interests Theory
2.3 Need Theories
2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory
2.3.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory
2.3.3 Alderfer’s ERG theory
2.3.4 Self-determination theory
2.3.5 Broad Theories
2.4 Cognitive theories
2.4.1 Goal-setting theory
2.5 Unconscious motivation
3 Controlling motivation
3.1 Early programming
3.2 Organization
3.3 Drugs
4 Applications
4.1 Education
4.2 Business
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
//

[edit] Motivational concepts

[edit] The Incentive Theory of Motivation
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.
Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.

[edit] Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives.
Intrinsic motivation has been studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. There is currently no universal theory to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation, and most explanations combine elements of Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Though it is thought that students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in),
Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),
Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.
Note that the idea of reward for achievement is absent from this model of intrinsic motivation, since rewards are an extrinsic factor.
In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.
The most obvious form of motivation is coercion, where the avoidance of pain or other negative consequences has an immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is considered slavery. While coercion is considered morally reprehensible in many philosophies, it is widely practiced on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family unit (on children), and in the form of conscription. Critics of modern capitalism charge that without social safety networks, wage slavery is inevitable[citation needed]. However, many capitalists such as Ayn Rand have been very vocal against coercion[citation needed]. Successful coercion sometimes can take priority over other types of motivation. Self-coercion is rarely substantially negative (typically only negative in the sense that it avoids a positive, such as forgoing an expensive dinner or a period of relaxation), however it is interesting in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be sometimes tweaked to satisfy higher ones.
In terms of GCSE PE, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. E.g. they compete for the love of the sport.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. E.g. The crowd cheer the performer on, this motivates them to do well, or to beat a PB (Personal Best). Another example is trophies or a reward. It makes the performer want to win and beat the other competitors, thereby motivating the performer.

[edit] Self-control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School of Management professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal.
Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.

[edit] Motivational Theories

[edit] Drive Reduction Theories
There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases as it is not satisfied. Then as we satisfy that drive by fulfilling its desire, such as eating, the drive's strength is reduced. It is based on the theories of Freud and the idea of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.
There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of the Drive Reduction Theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how Secondary Reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological or psychological need but reduces drive on a regular basis through a pay check second-order conditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory held true we would not be able to explain how a hungry human being can prepare a meal without eating the food before they finished cooking it.
However, when comparing this to a real life situation such as preparing food, one does get hungrier as the food is being made (drive increases), and after the food has been consumed the drive decreases. The only reason the food does not get eaten before is the human element of restraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, the food will either be nicer after it is cooked, or it won't be edible at all before it is cooked.

[edit] Cognitive dissonance theory
Main article: Cognitive dissonance
Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.
Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for one's health, and yet continues to smoke.

[edit] Affective-Arousal Theories

[edit] Need Achievement Theory
Main article: David McClelland
David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory envisions that a person has a need for three things, but differs in degrees to which the various needs influence their behavior: Need for achievement, Need for power, and Need for affiliation.

[edit] Interests Theory
Main article: Holland Codes
Holland Codes are used in the assessment of interests as in Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985). One way to look at interests is that if a person has a strong interest in one of the 6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be strongly reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of weak interest.

[edit] Need Theories

[edit] Need Hierarchy Theory
Main article: Hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely discussed theory of motivation.
The theory can be summarized as thus:
Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior; only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are as follows:
Physiological
Safety and security
Social
Esteem
Self actualization

[edit] Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Main article: Frederick Herzberg
Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, lead to dissatisfaction.
He distinguished between:
Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
Hygiene factors; (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.
The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory."

[edit] Alderfer’s ERG theory
Main article: Clayton Alderfer
Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

[edit] Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and development. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.[2]

[edit] Broad Theories
The latest approach in Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective as lined out in the "Onion-Ring-Model of Achievement Motivation" by Heinz Schuler, George C. Thornton III, Andreas Frintrup and Rose Mueller-Hanson. It is based on the premise that performance motivation results from way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. Especially it integrates formerly separated approaches as Need for Achievement with e.g. social motives like Dominance. The Achievement Motivation Inventory AMI (Schuler, Thornton, Frintrup & Mueller-Hanson, 2003) is based on this theory and assesses three factors (17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.for example...

[edit] Cognitive theories

[edit] Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal. For further reading, see Locke and Latham (2002).
Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.

[edit] Unconscious motivation
Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to Maslow: "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct [3]." In other words, stated motives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example, it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not really hungry for food but for attention and love. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment than others because they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.
Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it are not available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or repressed. Rationalization, or "explaining away", is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one's own faults to others. "I feel I am to blame", becomes "It is her fault; she is selfish". Repression of powerful but socially unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An example of this would be the employee who hates his boss but overworks himself on the job to show that he holds him in high regard.
Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the extent that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other hand, knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems. Although few contemporary psychologists deny the existence of unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated only in times of anxiety and stress, and that in the ordinary course of events, human behavior — from the subject's point of view — is rationally purposeful.

[edit] Controlling motivation
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.

[edit] Early programming
Modern imaging has provided solid empirical support for the psychological theory that emotional programming is largely defined in childhood. Harold Chugani, Medical Director of the PET Clinic at the Children's Hospital of Michigan and professor of pediatrics, neurology and radiology at Wayne State University School of Medicine, has found that children's brains are much more capable of consuming new information (linked to emotions) than those of adults. Brain activity in cortical regions is about twice as high in children as in adults from the third to the ninth year of life. After that period, it declines constantly to the low levels of adulthood. Brain volume, on the other hand, is already at about 95% of adult levels in the ninth year of life.

[edit] Organization
Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life, there are solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self-motivation. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one chapter about the proper organization of one's tasks and goals. It is usually suggested that it is critical to maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between those which are completed and those which are not, thereby moving some of the required motivation for their completion from the tasks themselves into a "meta-task", namely the processing of the tasks in the task list, which can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.
Most electronic to-do lists have this basic functionality, although the distinction between completed and non-completed tasks is not always clear (completed tasks are sometimes simply deleted, instead of kept in a separate list).
Other forms of information organization may also be motivational, such as the use of mind maps to organize one's ideas, and thereby "train" the neural network that is the human brain to focus on the given task. Simpler forms of idea notation such as simple bullet-point style lists may also be sufficient, or even more useful to less visually oriented persons..

[edit] Drugs
Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as nootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.
Converging neurobiological evidence also supports the idea that addictive drugs such as cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, and heroin act on brain systems underlying motivation for natural rewards, such as the mesolimbic dopamine system. Normally, these brain systems serve to guide us toward fitness-enhancing rewards (food, water, sex, etc.), but they can be co-opted by repeated use of drugs of abuse, causing addicts to excessively pursue drug rewards. Therefore, drugs can hijack brain systems underlying other motivations, causing the almost singular pursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.

[edit] Applications

[edit] Education

This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007)
Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can:
Direct behavior toward particular goals
Lead to increased effort and energy
Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
Enhance cognitive processing
Determine what consequences are reinforcing
Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
There are two kinds of motivation:
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant.
Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).
Note also that there is already questioning and expansion about this dichotomy on motivation, e.g., Self-Determination Theory.
Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.
Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner).

[edit] Business
At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.
Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
Motivated workers are more productive.
The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side.
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study[4] at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).
Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's Goal Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.[5]
According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money-- in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.
Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for motivating employees.[6]on wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money-- in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.
Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for motivating employees.[6]